Indirect and Subtle Allusions to the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (Part 4)
Unexpected and Creative Uses
This post is a continuation of a previous post discussing the subtle and indirect uses of the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament. Click here to read the previous post.
At first glance, the connections between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament seem clear and straightforward. The New Testament authors frequently and overtly quote and cite passages from the Hebrew scriptures, often using them to validate their Messianic claims about Jesus and also for how new communities gathering around this belief should be organized and behave ethically. However, careful reading reveals a significant use of indirect references.
Beyond the direct citations, the New Testament authors engage in a subtler intertextual dialogue, making allusions and echoes to the Hebrew Bible that may not be immediately obvious to the casual reader. These more veiled references require careful reading to uncover, but they shed important light on how the earliest Christians understood the connection between their new faith and the ancient Israelite scriptures they inherited.
What are we to make of passages like 1 Corinthians 8:4-6, where Paul appears to apply what became traditional monotheistic language to Jesus? Or the way 1 Corinthians weaves together imagery and themes from Psalms 110 and 8 to construct a vision of Jesus' heavenly reign? How should we understand Paul's apparent allusions in Galatians to the calling narratives of the prophets Jeremiah and Isaiah?
These are the types of nuanced intertextual connections that have captured the attention of scholars in recent decades, as the field of biblical studies has become increasingly attuned to the complexity of literary relationships between these texts. Rather than simplistic proof-texting, the New Testament authors seem to be engaging in a more sophisticated practice, reinterpreting and repurposing key themes and patterns from the Hebrew scriptures in service of their proclamation of Jesus as Messiah.
What are the implications of these more indirect, non-obvious intertextual links? For one, they underscore the deep roots of earliest Christianity within the Jewish tradition, challenging any neat dichotomies between “Judaism”" and “Christianity.” They also expand our understanding of how the New Testament authors read and appropriated their scriptures and existing traditions, moving beyond a proof-text mentality to a more holistic, theologically-driven engagement. Tracing these allusions and echoes serves as a reminder to always re-read even what may feel obvious, inviting exploration of unexpected points of intersection between the biblical texts and the developing traditions they represent.
Pay attention, Israel, and be careful to do this so that it may go well with you and that you may increase greatly in number—as the Lord, the God of your ancestors, said to you, you will have a land flowing with milk and honey. Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord is one! You must love the Lord your God with your whole mind, your whole being, and all your strength. (Deuteronomy 6:3-5)
With regard then to eating food sacrificed to idols, we know that “an idol in this world is nothing,” and that “there is no God but one.” If after all there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as there are many gods and many lords), yet for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we live, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we live. (1 Corinthians 8:4-6)1
The parallel between Deuteronomy 6:3-5 and 1 Corinthians 8:4-6 is well discussed in both academic and devotional literature. In Deuteronomy, the Israelites are exhorted to love and obey the Lord, the one true God. This is what developed into a foundational monotheistic creed, known as the Shema, a defining tenet of Jewish faith.
However, the 1 Corinthians passage appears to go further by applying this monotheistic language not only to the Father, but also to Jesus Christ.2 Scholars have noted that this kind of “Christological monotheism”, where Jesus is included within the scope of Israel's monotheistic belief, is a distinctive feature of Pauline theology. Paul appears to understand and describe Jesus as participating in the identity and attributes of the God of Israel. This represents a significant development in early Christian thought, as the followers of Jesus sought to reconcile their devotion to him with the foundational Jewish belief in the oneness of God.
The parallel between Deuteronomy 6 and 1 Corinthians 8 highlights how Paul appropriates and reinterprets core Israelite monotheistic concepts within his framework. By applying the language of the Shema to both the Father and the Son, Paul advances a nuanced monotheism that encompasses the unique identity of Jesus. This intertextual connection demonstrates the profound theological continuity between the Old and New Testaments, as the early Christians sought to understand the person and work of Jesus in light of their inherited scripture and traditions.
Here is the Lord’s proclamation to my lord: “Sit down at my right hand until I make your enemies your footstool.” The Lord extends your dominion from Zion. Rule in the midst of your enemies. (Psalm 110:1-2)
Of what importance is the human race, that you should notice them? Of what importance is mankind, that you should pay attention to them? You made them a little less than the heavenly beings. You crowned mankind with honor and majesty. You appoint them to rule over your creation; you have placed everything under their authority. (Psalm 8:4-6)
You made a reservoir between the two walls for the water of the old pool—but you did not trust in the one who made it; you did not depend on the one who formed it long ago. At that time the Sovereign Lord of Heaven’s Armies called for weeping and mourning, for shaved heads and sackcloth. But look, there is outright celebration! You say, “Kill the ox and slaughter the sheep, eat meat and drink wine. Eat and drink, for tomorrow we die!” (Isaiah 22:11-13)
Each in his own order: Christ, the firstfruits; then when Christ comes, those who belong to him. Then comes the end, when he hands over the kingdom to God the Father, when he has brought to an end all rule and all authority and power. For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. The last enemy to be eliminated is death. For he has put everything in subjection under his feet. (1 Corinthians 15:23-27)3
Why too are we in danger every hour? Every day I am in danger of death! This is as sure as my boasting in you, which I have in Christ Jesus our Lord. If from a human point of view I fought with wild beasts at Ephesus, what did it benefit me? If the dead are not raised, let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die. (1 Corinthians 15:30-32)4
The later chapters of 1 Corinthians represent a uniquely dense section of subtle intertextuality. In Psalm 110:1-2, the Lord declares that the psalmist's “lord” will be exalted to a position of supreme authority, with his enemies subjected under his feet. This vision of a divinely empowered ruler is then taken up in 1 Corinthians 15:25, where Paul applies it to Jesus.
Likewise, the psalmist's celebration of humanity's exalted status, crowned with “honor and majesty” and granted dominion over God's creation, is reinterpreted Christologically in 1 Corinthians 15:27. Here, Paul incorporates the language of Psalm 8 with Psalm 110 to depict Christ as the one who has been granted sovereignty, with all things placed in subjection under his feet. This intertextual move signals how early Christians understood Jesus as the fulfillment of humanity's divinely-ordained role as vice-regent over the created order.5
In contrast, the passage from Isaiah 22:11-13 presents a more sober connection. The prophet condemns those who respond to impending judgment with reckless feasting and revelry, evoking the proverbial phrase “let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.” This sentiment is echoed in 1 Corinthians 15:32, where Paul uses it to highlight the futility of Christian faith if the resurrection of the dead is denied. By alluding to Isaiah's condemnation of those who abandon moral restraint in the face of crisis, Paul underscores the catastrophic consequences of rejecting the hope of resurrection.
These varied intertextual connections pointedly demonstrate how the New Testament creatively engages with and incorporates inherited traditions. Rather than mere proof-texting, this approach reveals a more nuanced theological worldview that understood Jesus as a climax of God's unfolding plan patterned throughout the Old Testament. The New Testament authors discerned profound significance in these patterns that were originally focused on Israel's history, wisdom, and prophetic vision.
Moreover, the nuanced ways in which these intertextual links are established - less often through clear and unambiguous citations, rather using more subtle allusions and thematic resonance - underscores the complexity of the biblical authors' approach to interpretation.
Listen to me, you coastlands! Pay attention, you people who live far away! The Lord summoned me from birth; he commissioned me when my mother brought me into the world. He made my mouth like a sharp sword, he hid me in the hollow of his hand; he made me like a sharpened arrow, he hid me in his quiver. He said to me, “You are my servant, Israel, through whom I will reveal my splendor.” But I thought, “I have worked in vain; I have expended my energy for absolutely nothing.” But the Lord will vindicate me; my God will reward me. So now the Lord says, the one who formed me from birth to be his servant— he did this to restore Jacob to himself, so that Israel might be gathered to him ... (Isaiah 49:1-5)
It also came in the days of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, king of Judah, and continued until the eleventh year of Zedekiah, son of Josiah, king of Judah, until the people of Jerusalem were taken into exile in the fifth month of that year. The Lord’s message came to me, “Before I formed you in your mother’s womb, I chose you. Before you were born, I set you apart. I appointed you to be a prophet to the nations.” (Jeremiah 1:3-5)
When the one who set me apart from birth and called me by his grace was pleased to reveal his Son in me so that I could preach him among the Gentiles, I did not go to ask advice from any human being, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to see those who were apostles before me, but right away I departed to Arabia, and then returned to Damascus. (Galatians 1:15-17)6 7
The connection between these passages from Isaiah and Jeremiah and their echo in Paul's letter to the Galatians reveal a use of scripture that highlights the apostle's understanding of his own prophetic calling and work.
In Isaiah 49, the figure of the “Servant of the Lord” is depicted as one who was set apart and commissioned by God from birth to be a “light to the nations” and reveal the divine throughout the earth. This vision is evoked in Galatians, where Paul declares that he was “set apart from birth” and “called by God's grace” to reveal the good news of Jesus to the Gentiles.
The concurrent allusion to Jeremiah further strengthens this intertextual link, as the prophet likewise testifies to being “chosen” and “set apart” by God from the womb for a divinely ordained prophetic mission. Paul's assertion that he did not receive his gospel from any human source, but rather directly from God, aligns him with this lineage of prophetically commissioned figures whose work was shaped by a profound sense of divine destiny.8
By intentionally evoking these Hebrew bible precedents, Paul situates his own calling and proclamation within a broader view of a divine redemptive plan. Just as the Servant of Isaiah 49 and the prophet Jeremiah were set apart to fulfill a unique role in revealing God's purposes, so too does Paul understand his own dramatic commissioning as a climax in this trajectory. He perceives the good news entrusted to him as part of a story that has been long developing within Israel's scriptures and traditions.
Does the one who disciplines the nations not punish? He is the one who imparts knowledge to human beings! The Lord knows that peoples’ thoughts are morally bankrupt. How blessed is the one whom you instruct, O Lord, the one whom you teach from your law in order to protect him from times of trouble, until the wicked are destroyed. (Psalm 94:10-13)
Now before faith came we were held in custody under the law, being kept as prisoners until the coming faith would be revealed. Thus the law had become our guardian until Christ, so that we could be declared righteous by faith. But now that faith has come, we are no longer under a guardian. (Galatians 3:23-25)9
In Psalm 94, the psalmist celebrates the disciplining and instructing role of the Lord, who imparts knowledge to human beings and protects those whom he teaches from times of trouble. This portrait of the law as a means of divine guidance and protection resonates strongly with Paul's depiction of the law's function in Galatians 3.
According to the apostle, prior to the coming of faith in Christ, the law had served as a “guardian” or “custodian” for God's people. In the Greco-Roman context, a paidagogos was a trusted slave responsible for overseeing the care and education of a child until they reached adulthood. Analogously, Paul sees the law as a divinely appointed pedagogue, tasked with the responsibility of safeguarding and disciplining God's covenant people until the arrival of the Messiah and the inauguration of the new age.10
This intertextual connection is particularly illuminating when considering Paul’s complex and sometimes difficult-to-ascertain views on the law. By evoking the psalmist’s vision of the law's beneficent function, Paul is able to articulate a more nuanced perspective of the law in early Chrisitan community. This subtle use of Psalm 94 underscores a profoundly Jewish character of Pauline theology, as he seeks to integrate the law’s ongoing significance within the overarching narrative of God’s redemptive plan centered on the Messiah.
A common thread woven through these parallels is the New Testament authors’ Christological interpretation of Hebrew bible texts and motifs. Whether it is the exaltation of the Davidic Messiah in Psalm 110, the depiction of the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah 49, or the pedagogical role of the Mosaic law in Psalm 94 and Galatians 3, these scriptures are consistently reread and reapplied to new events and contexts.
This intertextual engagement extends beyond mere proof-texting or isolated citations. The New Testament demonstrates a sensitivity to the broader patterns and contexts of passages they invoke. The diversity of intertextual techniques employed - ranging from explicit quotations to more subtle allusions and conceptual parallels - underscores the hermeneutical sophistication of these early Christian authors. They were adept at discerning connections that allowed them to find theological significance within what we may perceive as oblique echoes. This sensitivity to the complex, polysemous nature of the biblical text is a hallmark of their interpretive approach, moving well beyond a simple methodology.
This method of mining their inherited scriptures and traditions demonstrates how they sought to balance theological innovation while still grounding it in the past. This intricate web of textual connections serves to highlight their compelling vision of salvation history that undergirds the New Testament’s view of the person of Jesus.
Rainbow, Paul A. Monotheism and Christology in I Corinthians 8.4-6 (p. 173) The Queen's College, 1987
Gibb, Ian Paul and the Psalms: Paul's Hermeneutic and Worldview (pp. 109-110) University of Glasgow, 2017
Silva, Moisés “Galatians” in Beale, G. K., and D. A. Carson, editors. Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (p. 1810) Baker Academic, 2007
Evans, Craig A. “Paul and the Pagans” in Porter, Stanley E. (ed.) Paul: Jew, Greek, and Roman (pp. 117-139) Brill, 2008