Retellings: The Targums of Genesis (Part 3)
Variations in Narrative, Theology, and Tradition
This post is a continuation of previous posts discussing the many variations in the book of Genesis between the traditional Hebrew text and the Aramaic Targums. Click here to read the first post and click here to read the second post.
The Book of Genesis forms the bedrock of the Torah and the entire Hebrew Bible, narrating stories representing primordial stories beginning with creation and continuing on to the origins of the people of Israel. The sometimes-simple accounts in Genesis were expanded and reinterpreted in later Aramaic translations known as Targums. Three Targums in particular—Targum Onkelos, Targum Neofiti, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan—provide fascinating alternate readings of Genesis that at times greatly elaborate (or directly alter) the original text.
The Targums frequently add details absent from Genesis, as when Targum Pseudo-Jonathan specifies that Joseph's brothers purchased sandals with the silver they received from selling him into slavery (Genesis 37:28). This seemingly minor addition connects Joseph's sale to a later condemnation by the prophet Amos, highlighting the Targum's tendency to make intertextual connections. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan also aims to resolve potential contradictions in Genesis. When Jacob sees Joseph's bloodied coat, the Targum has him declare that Joseph still lives, reversing the clear implication in Genesis that he believes Joseph is dead (Genesis 37:33). Such changes demonstrate how the Targums sought to smooth over difficulties and inconsistencies in the biblical text through interpretive translations.
The Targums also provide embellished dialogue not found in the accounts in Genesis. When Judah admits to Tamar that she is more righteous than he because he failed to give her his son Shelah, the Jerusalem Targum adds an entire mini-sermon from Judah on the importance of righteous judgment. This, interestingly, echoes Jesus' words in Matthew 7:1-2, showcasing the broad range of intertextuality within and without the traditions behind the Targums. Such examples abound, as the Targumists felt free to greatly expand the succinct narratives in Genesis by supplying extensive speeches and details to fill in the gaps.
Jacob's deathbed blessings and prophecies over his sons in Genesis 49 also produce imaginative Targumic interpretations. Genesis 49:10 predicts that the scepter shall not depart from Judah until “he comes to whom it belongs.” Targum Onkelos specifies this refers to the messiah, supplying an explicit messianic reference absent from Genesis. Even more creatively, Targum Neofiti describes the coming warrior messiah from the line of Judah who will wade through bloody battles, in language clearly drawn from Isaiah 63.
Where Genesis simply refers to “blessings of the breasts and womb” in Jacob's blessing over Joseph, Targum Neofiti specifies this means blessings upon the breasts that nursed Joseph and the womb from which he came. A nearly identical tradition appears in Luke 11:27, referring to Jesus' mother, demonstrating the potentially wide and sweeping influence of the traditions behind the Targums and their readings.
A comparative study of the Targums with the book of Genesis demonstrates the creativity and imagination shown by ancient interpreters as they retold these stories for their own times. The Targums freely expanded the accounts in Genesis through extensive speeches, additional details, reconciliation of difficulties, and explicating connections to other texts. Tracing these expansions that echoed through later Jewish and Christian literature further demonstrates the ongoing influence of these Aramaic texts on biblical tradition.
When the Midianite merchants passed by, Joseph’s brothers pulled him out of the cistern and sold him to the Ishmaelites for 20 pieces of silver. The Ishmaelites then took Joseph to Egypt. (Genesis 37:28)
the Midianite men, masters of business, passed by; and they drew and brought up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Arabians for twenty mahin of silver; and they bought sandals of them. (Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Genesis 37:28)1
The brief account in Genesis 37:28 of Joseph's brothers selling him to Midianite merchants for 20 pieces of silver is greatly expanded in Targum Pseudo-Jonathan's retelling. The Targum specifies that Joseph was sold to “Arabians” for “twenty mahin of silver,” and adds the key detail that his brothers then used this silver to purchase sandals. On its surface, this appears to be a rather random embellishment. However, as James Kugel explains, this addition is tied to a condemnation in Amos 2:6 rebuking those who “sell the righteous for silver.”2
Ancient interpreters connected Amos's statement to the selling of Joseph, a quintessentially righteous man. Joseph's brothers selling him for silver in Genesis created an intertextual link to Amos 2:6. But Amos does not specify what the silver was used for. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan creatively fills this gap by stating the brothers bought sandals, providing a concrete narrative detail linking Genesis to Amos. By making this connection, the Targum introduces cohesion across texts.
Kugel argues the sandal purchase detail originated long before Pseudo-Jonathan, showing how gaps in biblical narratives produced creative intertextual elaborations. The Targumist drew from prior interpretive traditions to transform the sparse account in Genesis into a more comprehensive story, one that resonated with broader biblical themes. Yet the addition is cleverly subtle, worked organically into the Genesis narrative in a way that flows naturally from the Hebrew text.
A comparative reading of Genesis 37:28 and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan of Genesis 37:28 illuminates the creativity of early interpretive traditions in building on earlier biblical accounts through intertextual connections. The Targumist acts as both interpreter and storyteller, shaping multiple texts into a more coherent narrative. The additional sandal purchase detail connects Genesis to Amos, demonstrating how later traditions built upon scriptural gaps to construct a richer tradition.
They took Joseph’s tunic, killed a young goat, and dipped the tunic in the blood. Then they brought the special tunic to their father and said, “We found this. Recognize* now whether it is your son’s tunic or not.” He recognized it and exclaimed, “It is my son’s tunic! A wild animal has eaten him! Joseph has surely been torn to pieces!” (Genesis 37:31-33)
They sent it by the hand of the sons of Zilpha and of the sons of Bilhah the figured garment; and they brought it to their father, and said, ‘This have we found; know now, whether it is your son's garment, or not.’ He recognized it and said, ‘It is my son's garment: a beast of the wilderness has not devoured him, neither has he been slain by the hand of man; but I see by the Holy Spirit, that an evil woman stands against him.’ (Targum Pesudo-Jonathan Genesis 37:31-33)3
Genesis 37 contains the dramatic account of Joseph's brothers deceiving their father Jacob into believing Joseph is dead by bringing him a bloodied tunic. After recognizing the tunic, Jacob exclaims Joseph was devoured by an animal and is torn to pieces. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan alters this scene significantly and rather than declaring Joseph dead, Jacob in the Targum states Joseph still lives.
This change creates a stark contradiction between the Hebrew text and the Aramaic translation. As Iosif Zhakevich explains, the Targumist perceived incongruities in the Genesis account prompting a more interpretive rather than a purely literal translation.4 Specifically, Jacob believing Joseph dead conflicts with the description of their reunion later in Genesis. The Targumist resolves this difficulty through an amplified speech by Jacob directly contradicting the claim Joseph was torn to pieces.
Zhakevich argues such cases reveal the Targumists' concern for coherence within the text. By reworking problematic details, it aimed to smooth over discrepancies in the source text. This example illustrates how Targumic translations sought not merely to literally translate, but to reconstruct and harmonize the biblical narrative.
Targum Pseudo-Jonathan's reversal of Genesis 37 demonstrates the interpretive license taken by ancient translators and storytellers seeking coherence and consistency. For the Targumist, fidelity to the original did not preclude bold changes in the service of crafting a more seamless narrative. Their expanded renderings gives fresh reading to problematic passages.
Judah recognized them and said, “She is more upright than I am, because I wouldn’t give her to Shelah my son.” He was not physically intimate with her again. (Genesis 38:26)
Jehuda recognized the three witnesses, and arose upon his feet and said, I pray you, my brethren, and ye men of the house of my fathers, to hear me. With the measure that a man measures shall it be measured to him; whether good measure of evil; and blessed is every man who confesses his works. (Jerusalem Targum Genesis 38:26)5
The brief statement in Genesis 38:26 about Judah admitting Tamar's righteousness is greatly expanded in the Jerusalem Targum's retelling. The Targum adds an extensive speech by Judah proclaiming that one will be judged by the same measure used to judge others. This additional sermon echoes Jesus' teaching in Matthew 7:1-2 about not judging lest you be judged.
As Dale Allison explains, the connection between these texts illustrates the eschatological focus of the Targumists.6 The measuring of judgment in the Targum likely refers to final divine judgment, paralleling Jesus' warning. By adding Judah's sermon on judgment, the Targumist evokes broader biblical themes of divine retribution.
“Do not judge so that you will not be judged. For by the standard you judge you will be judged, and the measure you use will be the measure you receive. (Matthew 7:1-2)
The Targum's interpretive expansion through lengthy speeches allowed creative interweaving of texts and ideas. Judah is made to voice concerns that resonate with later traditions, blurring the line between old and new. Allison argues that the origin of the saying in Matthew 7 likely lies in such Targumic embellishments.
Thus, the Jerusalem Targum's embellishment of Genesis 38 demonstrates how gaps in a sparse narrative elicited amplifications tied to later, developing motifs. Comparing the variants highlights the role of Targumists as both storytellers and theologians, shaping fragmentary texts into a more coherent theological vision. The additional speech connects Genesis to later traditions, illustrating the intertextual snowballing of scriptural interpretation over time.
You are a lion’s cub, Judah, from the prey, my son, you have gone up. He crouches and lies down like a lion; like a lioness—who will rouse him? The scepter will not depart from Judah, nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet, until he comes to whom it belongs; the nations will obey him. (Genesis 49:9-10)
He who exercises dominion shall not pass away from the house of Judah, nor the saphra from his children's children for ever, until the Messiah comes, whose is the kingdom, and to whom shall be the obedience of the nations. (Targum Onkelos Genesis 49:10)
Genesis 49 contains Jacob's prophecies over his sons, including the contested blessing in verse 10 that Judah's scepter shall not depart until “he comes to whom it belongs.” Targum Onkelos represents an interpretation of this passage that specifies that the scepter will not depart from Judah until the coming of the Messiah.
As Kugel highlights, this interpretive addition was a conscious attempt to reconcile the prophecy with historical reality. From a historical perspective, the scepter did depart from Judah after the Babylonian conquest, contradicting the literal reading of Genesis 49. The Targumist resolves this by interpreting the passage as referring not to an unbroken Davidic line, but to a future messianic restoration.7
Onkelos creatively works with the text by introducing the concept of the Messiah not present in the Hebrew. As Dale Allison discusses, this also serves to demonstrate the Jewish interpretive tradition of reading Genesis 49 as a messianic prophecy.8 The Targumist shaped the elusive prediction into a clearer reference to the coming Messiah. Thus, comparison with Onkelos illuminates how Targumic translators amplified texts through interpretive additions to align them with contemporary theological ideas and historical events. By introducing the Messiah into Jacob's blessing, the Targumist brought ancient scripture into dynamic conversation with the changing needs and contexts of its ongoing audience. The addition helped breathe new life into the prophecy.
Kings shall not cease from among those of the house of Judah and neither (shall) scribes’ teaching the Law from his son’ sons until the time King Messiah shall come, to whom the kingship belongs; to him shall all the kingdoms be subject. 11 How beautiful is King Messiah who is to arise from among those of the house of Judah. He girds his loins and goes forth to battle against those that hate him; and he kills kings with rulers, and makes the mountains red from the blood of their slain and makes the valleys white from the fat of their warriors. His garments are rolled in blood; he is like a presser of grapes. (Targum Neofiti Genesis 49:10-11)
Who is this who comes from Edom, dressed in bright red, coming from Bozrah? Who is this one wearing royal attire, who marches confidently because of his great strength? “It is I, the one who announces vindication, and who is able to deliver!” Why are your clothes red? Why do you look like someone who has stomped on grapes in a vat? (Isaiah 63:2)9
Also with Genesis 49, Targum Neofiti likewise expands this into a vivid depiction of a warrior Messiah arising from Judah. The Targum describes this Messiah girded for battle, splattered in blood, having killed kings and warriors. This specific imagery clearly draws on Isaiah 63 portraying a divine warrior whose garments are “red” and “stained.”
As Martin McNamara explains, this Targumic portrayal of a militant Messiah shares much in common with later Messianic traditions found in texts like Revelation.10 Revelation similarly depicts Christ as a warrior king who treads the winepress of God's wrath, imagery influenced by Isaiah 63. Thus, the Targumic tradition behind the text has likely played some role in developing Isaiah's divine warrior motif into a messianic prophecy.
Targum Neofiti's own embellishment of Genesis 49 reveals the dynamic, intertextual process by which scriptural interpretations accrued over time. This distinct Targum helped preserve traditions and motifs surrounding Messianic ideals. The additive strategy of the Targumists led to uniquely layered and textured readings of these important texts.
His bow will remain steady, and his hands will be skillful; because of the hands of the Powerful One of Jacob, because of the Shepherd, the Rock of Israel, because of the God of your father, who will help you, because of the Sovereign God, who will bless you with blessings from the sky above, blessings from the deep that lies below, and blessings of the breasts and womb. (Genesis 49:23-25)
He placed his confidence in the Strong One. He stretched out his hand and his arms to ask for mercy from the Strong One of his father Jacob, with the strength of whose arm all the tribes of Israel are sustained. May the Memra of the God of your father be at your aid, and may the God of the heavens bless you with the best of the dew and the rain that descend from the heavens from above and with the blessing of the springs of the abyss that come up from the earth, from beneath. Blessed are the breasts from which you sucked and the womb within which you lay. (Targum Neofiti Genesis 49:24-25)11
This passage later in Genesis 49 simply refers to a simple reference to “blessings of the breasts and womb” in Jacob's blessing for Joseph. Targum Neofiti, however, expands this into what appears to be a specific blessing upon the breasts that nursed Joseph and the womb from which he came. As McNamara notes, this Targumic interpretation has a close parallel in Luke 11:27 which pronounces a blessing on the one who nursed Jesus.12
As he said these things, a woman in the crowd spoke out to him, “Blessed is the womb that bore you and the breasts at which you nursed!” But he replied, “Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and obey it!” (Luke 11:27-28)
The Targumist has transformed the opaque Hebrew text into a clearer reference to Joseph's maternal origins. This interpretation is also found in Genesis Rabbah, demonstrating a shared exegetical tradition. The Targumic-Lukan parallel also illustrates strong correlation and the influence of Jewish interpretive traditions on the New Testament.
The Targumist here has incorporated an interpretive tradition that preceded and yet also endured into the early Christian period. The sparse scriptural reference to “breasts and womb” elicited an imaginative maternal expansion that resonated with later traditions surrounding venerated religious figures.
Comparison with Targum Neofiti highlights processes of scriptural embellishment over time through ongoing exegesis and reinterpretation. The Targumist's explanatory renderings reflect an impulse to synthesize texts by elucidating opaque passages. Tracing this interpretive lineage demonstrates the dynamic evolution of biblical texts and traditions.
Exploring the Targums' imaginative re-readings and renderings of Genesis reveals the creativity of early biblical interpreters in retelling and expanding these foundational stories. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan connects Joseph's sale in Genesis to Amos by adding the detail about purchasing sandals, demonstrating intertextual harmonization. It also reverses Jacob's exclamation to say Joseph still lives, resolving textual discrepancies. The Jerusalem Targum's expanded speech by Judah ties Genesis to Jesus' teaching on judgment in Matthew, blending old and new. Onkelos and Neofiti introduce messianic interpretations of Judah's scepter not present in Genesis, updating ancient oracles.
Neofiti's embellishment of the warrior Messiah covered in blood draws on imagery from Isaiah, exemplifying the interweaving of texts over time. Its maternal blessing over Joseph parallels a tradition in Luke, illustrating enduring exegetical motifs. Across the Targums, sparse Genesis accounts are enriched through detailed speeches, ritual descriptions, exegetical clarifications, and explicitly messianic references.
Overall, comparing the laconic Genesis narratives to the more developed Targums reveals the dynamic process by which biblical texts grew over centuries through reinterpretation. The Targumists embellished simpler, relatively sparse accounts to synthesize texts, resolve issues, and align scriptures with new contexts and ideas. Their expansions shaped enduring traditions as intertextual connections continued to collect over time.
Kugel, James L. The Bible as it Was (pp. 251-252) Harvard University Press, 1998
Zhakevich, Iosif J. Contradictions and Coherence in Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (pp. 54-55) Harvard University, 2016
Allison, Dale C. Constructing Jesus: Memory, Imagination, and History (pp. 123-125) Baker Academic, 2013
Kugel, James L. The Bible as it Was (p. 276) Harvard University Press, 1998
Allison, Dale C. Scriptural Allusions in the New Testament: Light from the Dead Sea Scrolls (pp. 49-50) Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2019
McNamara, Martin Targum and Testament Revisited Aramaic Paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible: A Light on the New Testament (p. 212) William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2010
McNamara, Martin Targum Neofiti 1, Genesis (pp. 223-225) Liturgical Press, 1992