Indirect and Subtle Allusions to the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament (Part 5)
Unexpected and Creative Uses
This post is a continuation of a previous post discussing the subtle and indirect uses of the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament. Click here to read the previous post.
The intricate literary relationship between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament extends beyond the many instances where the latter directly quotes or cites the former. In many cases, New Testament authors evoke particular Hebrew Bible passages without explicitly acknowledging the source. A close examination reveals a dense collection of allusions, echoes, and thematic parallels interwoven throughout these texts. This phenomenon, often overlooked or understated, invites exploration into how the New Testament authors engaged in dialogue with the texts and traditions they inherited.
The relevance of these more hidden intertextual connections cannot be overstated, as they offer significant insight into the literary work, theological focus, and cultural milieu that shaped the final texts. By tracing these allusions and echoes, we can gain appreciation for these authors’ creative engagement with their literary heritage, demonstrating historical methods of scriptural interpretation that are less common and understood today.
For those new to this phenomenon, exploring the indirect allusions and echoes between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament can be an eye-opening experience. It invites us to approach these texts with fresh eyes, focusing on connections of both language and theme that might otherwise go unnoticed. This challenges us to read slowly, attentively, and with an openness to the intricate interplay of ideas across centuries of inspired writing.
Rather than asserting definitive conclusions, these examples should hopefully prompt more questions and further exploration. In many cases, the New Testament authors creatively reinterpreted and reimagined the Hebrew Bible’s narratives, themes, and theological concepts. How and why would they work in this manner? And how might these intertextual connections enrich our understanding of the complex literary world of the Second Temple period that the New Testament was written in?
“For the Lord of Heaven’s Armies says, ‘As I had planned to hurt you when your fathers made me angry,’ says the Lord of Heaven’s Armies, ‘and I was not sorry, so, to the contrary, I have planned in these days to do good to Jerusalem and Judah—do not fear! These are the things you must do: Speak the truth, each of you, to one another. Practice true and righteous judgment in your courts. (Zechariah 8:14-16)
… be renewed in the spirit of your mind, and to put on the new man who has been created in God’s image—in righteousness and holiness that comes from truth. Therefore, having laid aside falsehood, each one of you speak the truth with his neighbor because we are members of one another. (Ephesians 4:23-25)1
The book of Zechariah, written in the post-exilic period, envisions a restored Israel living in covenant faithfulness to God. In chapter 8, verses 14-16, the Lord declares his intention to bless Jerusalem and Judah, contrasting with his past discipline. Central to this vision of restoration is a call for the people to “speak the truth” to one another and practice righteous judgment. This ethical imperative is rooted in the context of covenant renewal and the establishment of a community reflecting God’s holiness.
Ephesians echoes this call for truth-telling and righteous living in a striking way. In Ephesians 4:23-25, the readers are exhorted to “be renewed in the spirit of [their] mind,” putting on the “new self, created in God’s likeness in righteousness and holiness that comes from the truth.” This renewal involves “laying aside falsehood” and “speaking the truth” with one another, mirroring the language of Zechariah 8:16.2
While some scholars debate whether Ephesians is directly alluding to Zechariah or drawing from broader Jewish traditions, the contextual significance of this connection is profound. Just as Zechariah envisioned a restored covenant community characterized by truthfulness and integrity, Ephesians presents its community as a type of “new self” embodying the truth and righteousness revealed in the Messiah.
Honesty has disappeared; the one who tries to avoid evil is robbed. The Lord watches and is displeased, for there is no justice. He sees there is no advocate; he is shocked that no one intervenes. So he takes matters into his own hands; his desire for justice drives him on. He wears his desire for justice like body armor, and his desire to deliver is like a helmet on his head. He puts on the garments of vengeance and wears zeal like a robe. (Isaiah 59:15-17)
For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the powers, against the world rulers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavens. For this reason, take up the full armor of God so that you may be able to stand your ground on the evil day, and having done everything, to stand. (Ephesians 6:12-13)3
The imagery of God donning armor and garments of vengeance in Isaiah 59:15-17 portrays the divine warrior’s resolve to confront injustice and establish righteousness. In the face of dishonesty and the absence of advocates for justice, the Lord takes matters into his own hands, clothed in the attire of a righteous warrior.
Ephesians evokes this imagery in a new context. In Ephesians 6:12-13, the readers are urged to “take up the full armor of God” to withstand the forces of evil and spiritual darkness. This call to spiritual warfare echoes the language of Isaiah, where God dons the garments of vengeance and zeal for justice.
While some scholars suggest that Ephesians is not directly drawing from Isaiah but rather from later Jewish traditions that reinterpreted this passage4, the parallel is nonetheless striking. Just as the Lord in Isaiah adorns himself with the armor of justice, the believers in Ephesians are called to clothe themselves in the divine panoply to wage spiritual battle against cosmic powers of darkness.
Turn to me so you can be delivered, all you who live in the earth’s remote regions! For I am God, and I have no peer. I solemnly make this oath—what I say is true and reliable: ‘Surely every knee will bow to me, every tongue will solemnly affirm; they will say about me, “Yes, the Lord is a powerful deliverer.”’ All who are angry at him will cower before him. (Isaiah 45:22-24)
He humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death—even death on a cross! As a result God highly exalted him and gave him the name that is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee will bow—in heaven and on earth and under the earth—and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father. (Philippians 2:8-11)5
In the book of Isaiah, God declares that “every knee will bow” and “every tongue will swear allegiance” to him as the one true God and deliverer. Centuries later, Philippians echoes this distinct language in reference to Jesus. In Philippians 2:8-11, the exaltation of the crucified and resurrected Messiah is described in terms that evoke Isaiah's vision: “every knee should bow” and “every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord” to the glory of God the Father.
While some scholars caution against interpreting this as an expression of full binitarianism6, the parallel to Isaiah 45:23 is unmistakable. This intertextual link highlights the significance attached to Jesus in the early church. By evoking the language of Isaiah, which proclaimed the uniqueness of the one true God, Philippians ascribes to Jesus a level of exaltation and acclaim that was previously reserved for God alone in monotheistic tradition. This move reflects the emerging understanding of the divine Messianic role and the reinterpretation of expectations in light of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection.
He subdued nations beneath us and countries under our feet. He picked out for us a special land to be a source of pride for Jacob, whom he loves. (Selah) God has ascended his throne amid loud shouts; the Lord has ascended amid the blaring of ram’s horns. (Psalm 47:5)
For we tell you this by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will surely not go ahead of those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will come down from heaven with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. (1 Thessalonians 4:15-16)7
In Psalm 47, a triumphant hymn celebrating God’s rule over the nations, the psalmist depicts the Lord ascending his throne amid shouts and the blaring of trumpets. This imagery evokes a scene of cosmic enthronement and the manifestation of divine kingship.
1 Thessalonians appears to draw upon this imagery from Psalm 47 when describing the Parousia in chapter four. Just as the psalmist envisioned God ascending his throne with shouts and trumpet blasts, the return of Christ is depicted as occurring “with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God.”
While 1 Thessalonians does not explicitly cite Psalm 47:5 as a prophecy being fulfilled, the linguistic and thematic parallels appear intentional.8 The triumphant imagery of God’s enthronement in the Psalm is reinterpreted and applied to the eschatological event of Jesus’ return, underscoring the cosmic significance and divine authority associated with this pivotal moment.
This intertextual connection not only highlights the New Testament authors’ creative engagement with the Old Testament but also sheds light on their understanding of the Messiah’s identity and role. By evoking the language and imagery associated with God’s enthronement, 1 Thessalonians gives to Jesus the same prerogatives and cosmic authority, describing his exalted status.
As for the rest of the beasts, their ruling authority had already been removed, though they were permitted to go on living for a time and a season. “I was watching in the night visions, And with the clouds of the sky, one like a son of man was approaching. He went up to the Ancient of Days and was escorted before him. (Daniel 7:12-13)
For the Lord himself will come down from heaven with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be suddenly caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will always be with the Lord. (1 Thessalonians 4:16-17)9
In the apocalyptic visions of Daniel 7, a striking image is presented: “one like a son of man” approaches the Ancient of Days on the clouds of heaven. This enigmatic figure, distinct from the divine beings described earlier, is ushered into the presence of God, suggesting a unique status and role.
1 Thessalonians evokes similar imagery when describing the Parousia. In 1 Thessalonians 4:16-17, the Lord is depicted as coming down from heaven, and believers are “caught up together...in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air.” This parallel language of being “in the clouds” echoes the vision of Daniel 7:13.
While some scholars caution against drawing too direct a connection, as the cloud imagery in the Old Testament often signifies divine presence, the linguistic parallel is nonetheless intriguing.10 1 Thessalonians appears to be reinterpreting and applying the symbolic language of Daniel’s vision to the eschatological event of Jesus’ return.
This intertextual link highlights the early Christian understanding of Jesus’ exalted status and cosmic role. Just as the “one like a son of man” in Daniel’s vision was ushered into the divine presence, this return is depicted in language that evokes this same imagery of ascent and divine encounter.
Listen to the Lord’s message, you who respect his word! “Your countrymen, who hate you and exclude you, supposedly for the sake of my name, say, ‘May the Lord be glorified, then we will witness your joy.’ But they will be put to shame. The sound of battle comes from the city; the sound comes from the temple! It is the sound of the Lord paying back his enemies. (Isaiah 66:5-6)
This is evidence of God’s righteous judgment, to make you worthy of the kingdom of God, for which in fact you are suffering. For it is right for God to repay with affliction those who afflict you, and to you who are being afflicted to give rest together with us when the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven with his mighty angels. (2 Thessalonians 1:5-6)11
In the closing chapters of Isaiah, the prophet envisions God’s judgment and vindication of his faithful people. Isaiah 66:5-6 depicts a scene of cosmic upheaval, where the sound of battle emanates from the city and temple as God repays his enemies and vindicates those who have suffered for his name.
This imagery of divine retribution and the restoration of justice finds a likely thematic parallel in 2 Thessalonians 1:5-7. The author speaks of God’s “righteous judgment” in making the persecuted Thessalonian believers “worthy of the kingdom of God.” He then affirms that God will “repay with affliction those who afflict you” while granting rest to the afflicted when the Messiah is revealed from heaven.
The use of a rare Greek verb in 2 Thessalonians 1:6 (“to repay”) has led some scholars to suggest a direct allusion to the Septuagint of Isaiah 66:6, which depicts the Lord “paying back his enemies.”12 This linguistic parallel, coupled with the shared theme of divine judgment and vindication, strengthens the intertextual connection between these two passages.
Jeshua, Bani, Sherebiah, Jamin, Akkub, Shabbethai, Hodiah, Maaseiah, Kelita, Azariah, Jozabad, Hanan, and Pelaiah—all of whom were Levites—were teaching the people the law, as the people remained standing. They read from the book of God’s law, explaining it and imparting insight. Thus the people gained understanding from what was read. (Nehemiah 8:7-8)
Let no one look down on you because you are young, but set an example for the believers in your speech, conduct, love, faithfulness, and purity. Until I come, give attention to the public reading of scripture, to exhortation, to teaching. (1 Timothy 4:12-13)13
The book of Nehemiah provides a depiction of the public reading and exposition of the Torah in the post-exilic period. In Nehemiah 8:7-8, a group of Levites is described as teaching the people directly from the “book of God’s law,” explaining and imparting insight so that the hearers could gain understanding.
This practice of public scripture reading and teaching finds a parallel in the New Testament epistle of 1 Timothy. 1 Timothy 4:12-13 instructs Timothy, a young leader in the church, to “give attention to the public reading of scripture, to exhortation, to teaching.”
While the specific texts being read and taught may have differed across these two contexts, the parallel in the underlying practice is widely acknowledged.14 Just as the Levites in Nehemiah’s day facilitated the public engagement with and exposition of sacred texts, Timothy is charged with ensuring that this tradition continues within the early Christian communities.
This link highlights the continuity between Jewish and early Christian approaches to engaging with sacred writings. The public reading and teaching of scripture, grounded in established Jewish practice, became an integral part of the liturgical life and formation of the early Christian community. By evoking the imagery Nehemiah, 1 Timothy roots this Christian practice within the broader biblical tradition.
Then Job got up and tore his robe. He shaved his head, and then he threw himself down with his face to the ground. He said, “Naked I came from my mother’s womb, and naked I will return there. The Lord gives, and the Lord takes away. May the name of the Lord be blessed!” (Job 1:20-21)
Now godliness combined with contentment brings great profit. For we have brought nothing into this world and so we cannot take a single thing out either. But if we have food and shelter, we will be satisfied with that. Those who long to be rich, however, stumble into temptation and a trap and many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction. (1 Timothy 6:6-9)15
In the opening chapters of Job, after being stripped of his possessions and children, Job utters the memorable words: “Naked I came from my mother’s womb, and naked I will return there. The Lord gives, and the Lord takes away”.
1 Timothy echoes this sentiment when instructing Timothy on the proper perspective toward wealth and possessions. 1 Timothy 6:7 mirrors Job’s language in stating, “For we have brought nothing into this world and so we cannot take a single thing out either.” 1 Timothy goes on to declare that “godliness combined with contentment brings great profit.” The author then warns against the temptations and harmful desires that ensnare those who long to be rich, perhaps echoing the trials that Job endured.16
This connection highlights the enduring relevance of Job in the wider biblical tradition. By evoking Job’s poignant words, 1 Timothy grounds his teachings on wealth and contentment in this narrative, reinforcing the biblical principle that true contentment lies not in material possessions but in humble submission to God’s sovereign purposes.
While direct quotations and citations of the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament are relatively straightforward to identify, the indirect echoes, allusions, and thematic parallels here require a deeper level of engagement and familiarity with the texts. These subtler intertextual connections suggest that the New Testament authors possessed an intimate knowledge of the Hebrew Bible, allowing them to weave its language and imagery into their writings in more nuanced and evocative ways.
The New Testament writers did not simply pluck isolated verses from the Hebrew Bible, they demonstrated a unique understanding of the contexts, literary structures, and interpretive traditions surrounding these texts.
This depth of familiarity allowed the New Testament authors to engage in intricate exegetical maneuvers, reinterpreting and reimagining the symbolic language of the Hebrew Bible to illuminate the significance of Jesus and the emerging Christian movement. Their ability to make connections with narratives and themes suggests a level of fluency that had grown beyond mere quotation or proof-texting.
These indirect echoes and allusions testify to the New Testament authors’ unwavering commitment to situating their proclamation of Jesus within a narrative of God’s redemptive purposes woven throughout the Hebrew Bible. Their deep familiarity with these texts enabled them to create a new family of texts integrating themes of new covenant with the biblical foundations upon which it was built.
Petrenko, Ester Created in Christ Jesus for Good Works: The Integration of Soteriology and Ethics in Ephesians (p. 175) Durham University, 2005
Witherington, Ben Isaiah Old and New: Exegesis, Intertextuality, and Hermeneutics (p. 111) Fortress Press, 2017
Collins, Adela Yarbro “How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God?: A Reply” in in Bond, Helen K. (ed.) Israel's God and Rebecca's Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity (pp. 55-66) Baylor University Press, 2007
Gibb, Ian Paul and the Psalms: Paul's Hermeneutic and Worldview (pp. 130-131) University of Glasgow, 2017
White, Ellen Yahweh's Council: Its Structure and Membership (pp. 131-132) Mohr Siebeck, 2014
Nicklas, Tobias Intertextuality—Christology—Pseudepigraphy: The Impact of Old Testament Allusions in 2 Thess 1:5–12 (pp. 227-238) Brill, 2013
Reif, Stefan C. “Aspects of Jewish Contribution to Biblical Interpretation” in Barton, John (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Biblical Interpretation (pp. 148-150) Cambridge University Press, 1998
Fee, Gordon D. 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus (pp. 133-134) Hendrickson Publishers, 1988